About the Author
Mary K. Stewart is a PhD candidate in the School of Education at UC Davis, where she is pursuing an emphasis in Language, Literacy, and Culture, and a designated emphasis in Writing, Rhetoric, and Composition Studies. Her dissertation research focuses on the ways first-year composition instructors design collaborative activities (namely small group discussion and peer review) in computer-assisted, hybrid, and online environments. Find her website at MaryKStewart.com
Contents
Home
Invention
Digital Literacy
Methods
Practicing Invention
Teaching Invention
The Next Step
References
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Teaching Invention
The pages in this section link to and explain available online resources that can help you tailor invention activities to your specific students and delivery format.
- Classical Invention Resources
- Prewriting Resources
- Tagmemic Invention Resources
- Additional Resources
Classical Invention Resources
This page links to classical invention resources.
The theory of classical invention draws from Aristotle's definition of invention as a process by which a rhetor: (1) explores the writing situation to determine how to being an argument, (2) uses outside materials to understand and develop an argument, and (3) looks at multiple perspectives to frame or verify that argument (Lauer).
In other words, classical invention is the process of sifting through and interpreting existing information; by asking questions and conducting research to understand the context of a given topic, a writer can identify the argument she wishes to make.
To teach classical invention, I suggest four strategies:
- Aristotle's topoi
- Stasis theory
- Questions of audience and purpose
- Conducting outside research
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Definition |
Recommended websites |
| Stasis Theory |
The writer asks questions to determine the facts (conjecture), the meaning or nature of the issue (definition), the seriousness of the issues (quality), the plan of action (policy) (Purdue OWL). The goal is to reach consensus or find a starting point for the argument. |
Purdue, Prewriting Questions
Scroll down for a list of stasis questions; can be assigned as an activity.
Purdue, Stasis Introduction
Defines and explains stasis theory, and has links to how to use Stasis for Research and Stasis for Teams
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| Classical Topics |
The writer asks questions of definition, comparison, relationship, testimony, and circumstance to explore a topic (especially useful for narrowing). |
Dartmouth, Aristotle's Topoi
Great definition/explanation of this strategy. They also offer an explanation for tutors/teachers on the Invention page.
Purdue, Prewriting Questions
Has general questions with each topic; can be assigned as an activity (scroll down to "Classical Topics")
CSU, Questioning
Good explanation, but does not include circumstance.
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| Questions of Purpose and Audience |
The writer identifies his or her purpose and audience and uses that information to generate ideas / narrow the topic. |
Purdue, Prewriting Questions
Page begins by asking students to consider purpose and audience and then use that information to generate ideas.
Chapel Hill, Consider Purpose and Audience
Quick description and explanation (scroll down to locate, near the bottom of the page)
CSU, Understanding Purpose and Adapting to Your Audience
Extremely detailed information about purpose and audience; could be used as a reading assignment (progress through pages listed in the right navigation menu).
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| Conducting Outside Research |
Through this informal version of stasis or topics, the writer explores existing information and uses that context to generate ideas. |
Chapel Hill, Dictionaries, thesauruses, and encyclopedias
Suggests using dictionaries, thesauruses, and encyclopedias (scroll down to locate, near the bottom of the page)
CSU, How to Find a Topic
Suggests talking to people, conducting research on the computer, or using the library.
Harvard, Moving from Assignment to Topic
There are good suggestions at the bottom of this page about using secondary sources.
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If you have suggestions of other classical invention resources or comments about those listed here, I'd love to hear from you: mkstewart at ucdavis dot edu.
Prewriting Resources
Rohman (1965) coined the term "pre-writing," defining it as “the stage of discovery in the writing process when a person assimilates his ‘subject' to himself” (7). The function of prewriting is discovery and the goal is empowerment and the creation of self-knowledge; consequently, prewriting uses associative thinking to identify and explore personal opinions or relate previous experiences to a topic, and then using those connections to generate new ideas.
I recommend the following prewriting strategies:
- Freewriting/looping
- Discovery Draft
- Talk into a tape recorder
- Brainstorming
- Journaling
- Mapping
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Defintion |
Recommended websites |
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Freewriting/Looping
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The writer writes or types non-stop for 10-15 minutes; looping is starting a new freewrite based on a word or phrase in a previous freewrite. |
Paradigm, Freewriting
Good definition, includes activities.
Chapel Hill, Freewriting
Good definition, brief (scroll down, near the top of the page)
Dartmouth, Informal Strategies for Invention
Good definition, also has example (scroll down)
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| Discovery Draft |
In this directed freewriting strategy, the writer writes or types on a specific topic with the goal of exploring ideas. |
Dartmouth, Informal Strategies for Invention
Good description and explanation (scroll down). There is also a "The Discovery Draft" section on the Invention page for teachers/tutors.
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| Talk into Recorder |
The writer records him or herself talking about paper ideas, and then transcribes the recording or takes notes while listening to the recording. |
Suggested by Brown University
The site has been revised, but in Februrary 2012 Brown's site mentioned this in a list of 11 useful things to do when writing a paper. They note that this technique can be used in both early and late stages of writing.
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| Brainstorming |
The writer informally lists or jots down ideas. You may think of this like freewriting without the structure of sentences and phrases. |
Dartmouth, Informal Strategies for Invention
Good for students; both defines and demonstrates brainstorming. There is also a "Brainstorming" section on the Invention page for teachers/tutors.
Chapel Hill, Listing/Bulleting
Defines brainstorming as listing/bulleting, includes instructions for an activity (scroll down, near the top of the page).
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| Journaling |
The writer keeps a continuous or occasional journal. Assigned journaling may be specific to discussions or reading assignments, or unstructured. |
Cleveland State, Invention
This page briefly mentions journaling.
Fulwiler (1987) and Stewart (1972) have great suggestions about journaling.
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| Mapping |
In this visual prewriting strategy, the writer uses associative free thinking and articulates the relationship between ideas through drawing. |
Chapel Hill, Clustering/ Mapping/ Webbing
Strong definition, has a "how to" section (scroll down, near the middle of the page). Chapel Hill also has good videos: Color Coding, Drawing Relationships, Webbing
Write Design Online
Has multiple options for visually organizing ideas.
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If you have suggestions of other prewriting resources or comments about those listed here, I'd love to hear from you: mkstewart at ucdavis dot edu.
Tagmemic Invention Resources
Tagmemic invention views writing as a process of inquiry that can stimulate new insights and verify judgments. By asking questions, tagmemic strategies prompt writers to consider a topic from as many perspectives as possible and then generate new insights from the connections between those perspectives.
I recommend three tagmemic invention strategies:
- Tagmemics
- Cubing
- Journalistic questions
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Definition |
Recommended websites |
| Tagmemics |
The writer looks at the topic from three perspectives — particle, wave, and part of field. |
Dartmouth, Tagmemics
Good explanation of particle, wave, and field; can be a reading assignment. There’s also a "Tagmemics" section on the Invention page for teachers/ tutors.
Purdue, Prewriting Questions
Scroll down to "Tagmemics" heading. Defines perspectives as contrastive, variation, and distribution, and has fill-in-the-blank questions; can be assigned as an activity.
Chapel Hill, 3 Perspectives
Informal explanation—they call it “3 perspectives” and instruct students to describe, trace, and map the topic. Good activity and avoids jargon. (Scroll down to "3 Perspectives" heading; near the top of the page.)
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| Cubing |
The writer describes, compares, associates, analyzes, applies, and argues for/against the topic. |
Chapel Hill, Cubing
Defines the strategy and gives instructions for an activity. (Scroll down to "Cubing" heading; near the middle of the page.)
Purdue, Prewriting Questions
Has less explanation than Chapel Hill; can be assigned as an activity. (Scroll down to "Cubing" heading; near the bottom of the page.)
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| Journalistic Questions |
The writer asks Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? So What? |
Chapel Hill, Journalistic Questions
Gives instructions for asking the questions and explains how to use the answer to develop ideas. (Scroll down to "Journalistic Questions" heading; near the bottom of the page.)
Dartmouth, Five Ws and an H
The "Five Ws and an H" section on the Invention page for teachers/ tutors gives an example of how this strategy works in a dialog.
Purdue, Prewriting Questions
This is the only page to include the seventh question, “So what?” (Scroll down to "Journalistic Questions" heading; near the top of the page.)
Purdue, More Prewriting Questions
Moves away from the traditional journalistic questions, listing 20 questions that require the student to look at the subject from diverse perspectives.
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If you have suggestions of other tagmemic invention resources or comments about those listed here, I'd love to hear from you: mkstewart at ucdavis dot edu.
Additional Resources
The online writing centers I reviewed for this project have many excellent resources for students and composition instructors that are not directly related to invention, but may be helpful to consider alongside invention. Thus, this page contains links to and explanations of additional online resources.
Sites that List Multiple Invention Strategies
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Dartmouth University, Coming Up with your Topic and Invention
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The first page is for students; the second is for tutors. Both pages give detailed explanations of several strategies from each of the three theories; the student page divides invention into "informal" (prewriting) and "formal" (classical and tagmemic invention) strategies.
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Duke University, Prewriting
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Posting to a more general page about prewriting, this PDF has a good explanation of brainstorming (listing/bulleting), mapping, and freewriting.
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George Mason University, Brainstorming
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Lists several prewriting strategies and has visual examples of mapping. (Download the "Brainstorming Techniques" Word document.)
The general list of Writing Tips and Handouts may also be useful.
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Purdue University, Prewriting Questions
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Offers general suggestions for idea generation (explore the topic, generate ideas, brainstorm), and lists specific instructions for stasis theory, classical topics, and tagmemics.
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University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,Brainstorming
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Lists 13 strategies; includes strategies that align with each of the three theories of invention, but doesn't use formal jargon -- calls all of the strategies "brainstorming" and provides brief explanations and examples.
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Thesis Statement Development
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Dartmouth University, Developing Your Thesis
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This is a long handout; it would make a good reading assignment. Dartmouth also advocates for Nutshelling.
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George Mason University, Thesis Statement
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Explains how different disciplines require different types of theses and demonstrates how to “fix” weak thesis statements. (Download the "Thesis Statements" Word document.)
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Hamilton, Developing your Thesis
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Explains one-, two-, and three-story thesis statements and gives examples. This page could function as a reading assignment plus activity.
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Purdue University, Creating a Thesis Statement
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Gives examples of thesis statements for analytical, expository/explanatory, and argumentative papers.
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University of Wisconsin-Madison,Developing a Thesis Statement
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Includes "Derive Main Point from Topic" that explains purpose vs. thesis, "Compose a Draft Thesis Statement" that has several ways to draft theses and notes that the thesis needs to evolve with the paper, and "Refine and Polish the Thesis Statement" that tracks the evolution of a thesis statement.
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Considering Audience
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Colorado State University, Writing Guide: Audience
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Describes different types of audiences, gives examples, emphasizes defining/analyzing the audience before you start writing, distinguishes between readers and audience. Reads like a textbook.
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Colorado State University,Understanding Writing Situations
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Explains that writing is social; a good resource for framing the concept of audience. CSU also suggests A Social Model of Writing that situates the writing process according to purpose, audience, and physical/social/cultural context.
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Hamilton, Audience
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Addresses real versus imagined audiences and the role of the professor-as-reader.
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Purdue University, Audience Analysis
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Explains that the writer is the first audience, then the reader, and then the stakeholders.
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University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,Audience
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Promotes thinking about writing for different audiences.
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The Writing Process
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Purdue University, Writing Task Resource List
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Lists tasks associated with the writing process.
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Purdue University, Starting the Writing Process
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General advice for starting a paper.
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Understanding the Writing Assignment Prompt
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University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,Understanding Assignments
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Detailed handout explaining how to read and interpret assignment instructions. There is also a short demonstration video.
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Purdue University, Understanding Writing Assignments
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Lists specific steps for approaching the assignment prompt, includes examples.
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George Mason University,Understanding Your Instructor's Prompt
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Includes example prompts, emphasizes the active verb in the instructions. (Download the "Understanding Your Instructor's Prompt" Word document.)
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Writer's Block
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Purdue University, Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block
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Lists symptoms and cures; the first “cure” directs students to the Invention page.
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Purdue University, More Writer's Block Strategies
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Geared toward students who get stuck in the middle of the paper.
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George Mason University, Writer's Block
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Brief solutions for writer's block. (Download the "Writer's Block" Word document.)
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University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,Writing Anxiety
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Specific strategies for overcoming writer's block; considers why people experience anxiety and explains that this is common.
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Dartmouth University, A Few Words on Writer's Block
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Directed toward tutors; includes strategies for talking a student through writer's block. (Scroll to the "A Few Words on Writer's Block" section at the bottom of the page.)
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Procrastination
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University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,Procrastination
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Explains about how and why people procrastinate and gives specific strategies to avoid it.
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College-level Writing
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University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,College Writing
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Compares college to high school and talks about why the five-paragraph theme isn't appropriate for college.
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Tips for Teaching Writing
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University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,Tips on Teaching Writing
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Links to "What is Good Writing," "Situating Student Writers," and "In-Class Writing Exercises." There is a link to "Classroom Handouts" in the left navigation menu on this page that has helpful resources, such as a student self-evaluation form and a revision checklist.
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Colorado State University, Teaching
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Links to teaching guides, teaching activities, and teaching links (lists all the resources on the site). The Teaching Activities Bank also has good information.
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Additional Online Writing Tools
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Colorado State University, Writing Studio
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Anyone can register to use this online writing space that includes wikis, forums, blogs, and organizers, as well as writing guides and activities. Students can use this to store and organize their writing, or you can create an instructor account. The Writing Tools page shows students how to use the tools in the Writing Studio.
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Duke University, How Personality Affects Your Writing Process
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Students take the Kiersey Temperment Test and then read about strengths and weaknesses associated with their temperament-type and the writing process.
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If you have suggestions of other resources or comments about those listed here, I'd love to hear from you: mkstewart at ucdavis dot edu.
Regardless of which invention strategies you teach, it's a good idea to ask your students to discuss their experiences. Doing so will reinforce the concept of invention because discussion requires students to synthesize and focus their ideas and group discussion invites alternative perspectives on a topic.
Below are some example activities and discussion prompts that foster conversations about invention. These prompts are written as asynchronous online discussion forums, but can easily be adapted to face-to-face discussion.
Classical Invention Activities
- Students view University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill’s video, Understanding Assignments, or read Understanding Writing Assignments (Purdue), and then analyze the assignment instructions for a paper. Then, in the discussion forum, students identify the type of paper, the purpose (explain, argue, express), and the expected audience. When they respond to at least two of their classmates' posts, students should evaluate their peers' conclusions, offer new insights, suggest different strategies or resources, or challenge aspects of the analysis.
- Based on the written assignment prompt and Internet research, students select a paper topic and use classical topics or stasis theory to identify subtopics. Then, referencing Purdue University’s Creating a Thesis Statement or University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Developing a Thesis Statement, students develop a thesis statement for the written assignment. Students then post a draft of the thesis to the discussion forum and receive peer feedback. When they respond to at least two of their peers, they should include suggestions for improving the thesis or questions of clarification about how the thesis organizes the paper.
Prewriting Activities
- The teacher demonstrates freewriting using Google docs (students will need gmail accounts) while the students "watch" and then engage in collaborative freewriting&mdashgroups of 3 or 4 students freewrite in the same Google document for 10 minutes and are encouraged to read and add to each other's freewrites during the activity. Students then write individual reflections about the experience and post it to the discussion forum. [You can do this without Google docs by embedding an ether pad into the course website.]
- Students keep a journal throughout the course, writing in response to each reading assignment and activity, and before and after each discussion. There is no length requirement for any entry, and they can write about anything they want. The instructor should tell them to think of this journal as part-diary, part-class notebook, and should encourage them to include personal experiences or outside resources in their reflections. At the conclusion of the course, students submit a "public" version, which must include a set number of entries (about two-thirds of the total possible), and submit a reflection on the experience to the discussion forum.
Tagmemic Invention Activities
- Students use tagmemics, cubing, or journalistic questions to narrow their paper topics. Then they describe their experience with the strategy in the discussion forum. How did the technique cause the student to use inquiry or multiple perspectives? Where did this lead the student (how did he or she arrive at his or her final idea)? Ask students to respond to at least two of their classmates, asking questions about how the technique worked, how it led to the idea for the paper, or how reading about a classmate's experience has affected their own thinking about tagmemic invention.
- Students use tagmemics, cubing, or journalistic questions to narrow their paper topics. Then, tell the students to take a break. When they come back later, ask them to read what they wrote and write a reflection on how the process altered their thinking of the topic. In the discussion forum, students should indicate if the experience has helped them determine the focus for the paper. When they respond to at least two of their classmates' posts, ask them to either compare and contrast the selected strategies and their peers' opinions of the experience with their own selection and experience, or to pose questions that ask peers to further define their paper topics.
Example Discussion Prompts that Give Students a Choice of Strategy
Experiment with one invention strategy and describe your experience:
- . . . Note whether or not the strategy worked for you and if you will use it again. Also identify what type of invention the strategy fostered (prewriting, classical invention, or tagmemic invention). Respond to at least two of your classmates' posts, noting any trends you see in the types of strategies selected by the group.
- . . . Did you find the strategy useful? How does it differ from your usual method of generating ideas? Respond to at least two of your classmates' posts who tried different strategies than you. In your response, assess the differences between the techniques. Then, consider how they lead to similar results.
- . . . Would you call this process "creative"? Why or why not? Respond to at least two of your classmates' posts.
- . . . Do you think this will assist you as you write the first draft of your paper? Can you imagine a situation in which you would return to the strategy after you've begun your first draft? Respond to at least two of your classmates' posts.
- . . . Do you think this strategy would work in a group? Why or why not? Review your classmates' responses and respond to one you think you could use in a group and one that would not work in a group, and explain why.
- . . . Week One: Post the result of your experiment to the discussion forum (you can edit out any personal information). Respond to at least two of your classmates' posts, one of whom tried a different strategy than you. Week Two: Review last week's discussion. Post a new thread that considers how you would take the results of the exercise and begin to form the information into a first draft. Respond to at least two of your classmates' posts.
If you try any of these activities in class, or if you have suggestions for other activities or discussion prompts, I'd love to hear from you: mkstewart at ucdavis dot edu.
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