Ellen M. Street
Ellen Street is a Ph.D. student in Nutrition at Oregon State University. Her graduate research is
devoted to the beneficial effects of whole foods and plant-based diets with an emphasis on
empowering individuals, through community engagement approaches, to make healthy lifestyle
choices. Ellen earned her B.S. in Clinical Nutrition in 2016 and is an alumnus of the Ronald E.
McNair Scholars Program at the University of Davis where she completed this analysis under the
mentorship of Dr. Sarah Tinker Perrault.
Contents
Abstract
Literature Review
Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Appendix
Works Cited
|
Appendix
Table One: Statements Containing Boosters
|
Boosters
|
|
| DGA |
“Strong evidence from mostly prospective cohort studies but also randomized controlled trials has shown that eating patterns that include lower intake of meats as well as processed meats and processed poultry are associated with reduced risk of CVD in adults.” |
| AHA |
N/A |
| WCRF/AICR |
"Processed meat is a convincing cause of colorectal cancer"
“The evidence on processed meat is even more clear-cut than that on red meat, and the data do not show any level of intake that can confidently be shown not to be associated with risk."
"The evidence that red meat, and particularly processed meat, is a cause of colorectal cancer is stronger now than it was in the mid-1990s."
"Evidence that red meat and, in particular, processed meat are causes of colorectal cancer is now stronger ."
"The evidence that red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer is convincing. The evidence that processed meat is a cause of colorectal cancer is also convincing." |
| LANCET |
"substantial epidemiological data showing a positive association between consumption of red meat and colorectal cancer and the strong mechanistic evidence."
“Consumption of red meat was also positively associated with pancreatic and with prostate cancer.”
"…a positive association with the consumption of processed meat was found for stomach cancer."
“Sufficient evidence linking processed meat to colorectal cancer…”
|
| AIM |
[Dietary iron, primarily from red meat, is] “positively associated with myocardial infarction and fatal coronary heart disease.” |
| AJE |
“...showed a positive association between the consumption of red meat, particularly processed meat, and all-cause mortality.”
|
Table Two: Statements Containing Hedges
| Hedges |
|
| DGA |
Processed meats and processed poultry are sources of sodium and saturated fats, and intake of these products can be accommodated as long as sodium, saturated fats, added sugars, and total calories are within limits in the resulting eating pattern….
In separate analyses, food pattern modeling has demonstrated that lean meats and lean poultry can contribute important nutrients within limits for sodium, calories from saturated fats and added sugars, and total calories when consumed in recommended amounts in healthy eating patterns, such as the Healthy U.S.-Style and Mediterranean-Style Eating Patterns
[Protein] choices within these eating patterns may include processed meats as long as you limit sodium, kcals from sat fat and added sugars.
|
| AHA |
N/A |
| WCRF/AICR |
"The general mechanisms through which red meat could plausibly cause cancer are outlined below"
Processed meats are a "probable cause of stomach cancer,"
|
| LANCET |
"Overall, the Working Group classified consumption of processed meat as “carcinogenic to humans.”
The Working Group classified consumption of red meat as “probably carcinogenic to humans,”
|
| AIM |
Secondary products of nitrites are “potential carcinogens.” |
| AJE |
Red meat and processed meat consumption may increase
all-cause mortality by increasing the risk of major chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease and cancer.
“...high red meat consumption may have adverse health consequences.”
|
Table Three: 2015-2020 DGA
| Hedges |
"Choices within these eating patterns may include processed meats and processed poultry as long as the resulting eating pattern is within limits for sodium, calories from saturated fats and added sugars, and total calories.” |
| Boosters |
“Strong evidence from mostly prospective cohort studies but also randomized controlled trials has shown that eating patterns that include lower intake of meats as well as processed meats and processed poultry are associated with reduced risk of CVD in adults.” |
| Directives |
"Some individuals, especially teen boys and adult men, also need to reduce overall intake of protein foods by decreasing intakes of meats, poultry, and eggs and increasing amounts of vegetables or other under consumed food groups." |
| Medium modality verbs |
"In separate analyses, food pattern modeling has demonstrated that lean meats and lean poultry can contribute important nutrients within limits for sodium, calories from saturated fats and added sugars, and total calories when consumed in recommended amounts in healthy eating patterns, such as the Healthy U.S.-Style and Mediterranean-Style Eating Patterns."
"Processed meats and processed poultry are sources of sodium and saturated fats, and intake of these products can be accommodated as long as sodium, saturated fats, added sugars, and total calories are within limits in the resulting eating pattern…."
"Choices within these eating patterns may include processed meats and processed poultry…”
|
| Indicative Present |
“...lower intake of meats as well as processed meats and processed poultry are associated with reduced risk of CVD in adults.” |
Table Four: AHA Recommended Dietary Pattern to Achieve Adherence to the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology (AHA/ACC) Guidelines
| Hedges |
N/A |
| Boosters |
N/A |
| Directives |
“should consume a dietary pattern that emphasizes vegetables, fruits, and whole grains; includes low-fat dairy products, poultry, fish, legumes, nontropical vegetable oils, and nuts; and has limited intake of sweets, SSBs [sugar sweetened beverages], red meats, and processed foods,”
"limit intake" of red meats for individuals with high LDL-C, BP.
"reduce sources" of meat and dairy fat to reduce trans-saturated fat intake for individuals with high LDL-C.
|
| Medium modality verbs |
“should consume a dietary pattern that emphasizes vegetables, fruits, and whole grains…” |
Table Five: American Institute for Cancer Research: Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective – Recommendations for Cancer Prevention
| Hedges |
"The general mechanisms through which red meat could plausibly cause cancer are outlined below,"
"There are several potential underlying mechanisms for a positive association of red meat consumption with colorectal cancer, including the generation of potentially carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds." |
| Boosters |
"Processed meat is a convincing cause of colorectal cancer."
"The evidence on processed meat is even more clear-cut than that on red meat, and the data do not show any level of intake that can confidently be shown not to be associated with risk."
"The evidence that red meat, and particularly processed meat, is a cause of colorectal cancer is stronger now than it was in the mid-1990s."
"Evidence that red meat and, in particular, processed meat are causes of colorectal cancer is now stronger ."
"The evidence that red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer is convincing. The evidence that processed meat is a cause of colorectal cancer is also convincing." |
| Directives |
"Limit intake of red meat and avoid processed meat." |
| Indicative present |
"It is best that processed meats are avoided."
"Red or processed meats are convincing or probable causes of some cancers." |
Table Six: The Lancet Oncology – Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat
| Hedges |
"The Working Group classified consumption of red meat as “probably carcinogenic to humans”" |
| Boosters |
"In making this evaluation, the Working Group took into consideration all the relevant data, including the substantial epidemiological data showing a positive association between consumption of red meat and colorectal cancer and the strong mechanistic evidence. Consumption of red meat was also positively associated with pancreatic and with prostate cancer."
"…the Working Group concluded that there is sufficient evidence in human beings for the carcinogenicity of the consumption of processed meat."
“consistent associations of colorectal cancer with consumption of processed meats”
“Consumption of red meat was also positively associated with pancreatic and with prostate cancer.”
|
| Indicative present |
"Overall, the Working Group classified consumption of processed meat as "carcinogenic to humans."" |
Table Seven: Archives of Internal Medicine – Red Meat Consumption and Mortality
| Hedges & Medium modality verbs |
"Unprocessed and processed meats contain similar amounts of saturated fat and heme iron; however, other constituents in processed meat, particularly sodium and nitrites, might explain the additional harm of processed meats."
"The high sodium content [in processed meats] may increase CVD risk through its effect on blood pressure."
"Several compounds in red meat or created by high-temperature cooking, including N- nitroso compounds (nitrosamines or nitrosamides) converted from nitrites, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and heterocyclic amines, are potential carcinogens."
"Heme iron and iron overload might also be associated with increased cancer risk through promotion of N-nitroso compound formation, increased colonic cytotoxicity and epithelial proliferation, increased oxidative stress, and iron-induced hypoxia signaling."
"These results indicate that replacement of red meat with alternative healthy dietary components may lower the mortality risk." |
| Boosters |
"…dietary iron, particularly heme iron primarily from red meat, has been positively associated with myocardial infarction and fatal coronary heart disease."
"In conclusion, we found that greater consumption of unprocessed and processed red meats is associated with higher mortality risk."
|
| Indicative present |
"In conclusion, we found that greater consumption of unprocessed and processed red meats is associated with higher mortality risk."
"These results indicate that replacement of red meat with alternative healthy dietary components may lower the mortality risk." |
Table Eight: American Journal of Epidemiology – Red meat and processed meat consumption and all-cause mortality: A meta-analysis
| Hedges & Medium modality verbs |
"Red meat and processed meat consumption may increase all-cause mortality by increasing the risk of major chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease and cancer."
"These results add to and extend the evidence that high red meat consumption may have adverse health consequences." |
| Boosters |
"In conclusion, findings from this meta-analysis showed a positive association between the consumption of red meat, particularly processed meat, and all-cause mortality."
"Among cancer types, colorectal cancer has been most consistently associated with red meat and processed meat consumption." |
| Indicative present |
"Findings from this meta-analysis indicate that high consumption of red meat, in particular processed meat, is associated with higher all-cause mortality."
|
|