"Multiliteracies for Inclusive Technologies: A Case Study on Location-Based Services and Domestic Violence Survivors"

Jennifer Roth Miller

Jennifer Roth Miller is a student in the Texts and Technology Doctoral Program at the University of Central Florida. Jennifer's research interests explore the convergence of philanthropy, social justice, education, corporate social responsibility, and cause-based marketing in socially constructing collective views on issues such as technology, lifestyle, health, and community.

Contents

Abstract

Introduction

Location-Based Services & Privacy

Location-Based Services & Privacy Cont.

Domestic Violence Survivors & Geolocation: A Case Study

Digital Literacy Possibilities for Domestic Violence Survivors

Digital Literacy Possibilities for Domestic Violence Survivors Cont.

Potential for Rhetoric & Composition

Works Cited

Location-Based Services & Privacy

As a starting point, Agre (1994) evaluates varying models of privacy in his essay “Surveillance and Capture: Two Models of Privacy.” His essay begins by discussing Michael Foucault’s theory of panopticism. Panopticism represents a form of surveillance where people and their actions are knowingly watched by a central “big brother.” This leads to a system of power where people act as required because they know they are being monitored. This type of surveillance is associated with government monitoring and control. Early discourse about new media and privacy followed this model. However, Agre (1994) considers a different model: capture. In this model, computers capture information for a variety of purposes and it is less associated with individual actions being monitored by a central government. Corporations correlate information from multiple actions into patterns to create profiles that become a commodity in this model. People are aware that their actions can be seen so they act consciously, considering the appearance of their identity to others, yet they don’t consciously feel the pressure or threat of constant monitoring, as in panopticism, because data is aggregated. Smartphone-enabled location-based services are a present form of capture surveillance and tracking.

Location-based services are applications that aggregate a person’s location from geolocation information supplied from a device in that person’s possession with contextual data to provide a real-time information solution from the online network relevant to a person’s need (Abbas, Michael, & Michael, 2014). Push-pull technology has evolved from Web 1.0 to 2.0 to now include a third way users receive information from the network (Ajam, 2011; Weltevrede, Helmond, & Gerlitz, 2014). The modern evolution is an enhanced push-pull tracking method where information is supplied intuitively based on location and tracking. In other words, technology has advanced from a model where users request information from the network, to where the network supplies relevant information based on requests initiated earlier from users, to a version where users are tracked continuously and pushed intuitive location-based information. The result is essentially search engine results without users performing an actual search (Barreneche, 2012). These capabilities make everyday life easier and advertisements more relevant. It’s a situation that seems ideal on the surface, yet as it is more fully understood it presents some serious concerns.

Smartphones seamlessly combine many digital technologies, such as phone, Internet, social media, geolocation services, various interfaces, and allow a real-time back and forth rhythm for information, identities, and data to traverse human and non-human, as well as online and offline spaces (Weltevrede et al., 2014). While tablets, laptops, and other networked computer-related devices also run location-based services, in this research smartphones are referred to as the main mobile device running the services because they are small enough to be carried around all of the time and are therefore constantly in use. Because the smartphone is in constant possession and coupled with geolocation technology, allowing tracking, it is considered the most important mobile device in this discussion. However, to clarify, any computer-related device, satellite systems, positioning in wi-fi networks, and cellular positioning techniques erode privacy at some level.

Location-based services allow people to conveniently access information via mobile devices. Truly, location-based services have revolutionized modern life, making day-to day activities easier and information more relevant. The ability to access relevant maps, directions, recommendations, reviews, and to connect socially based on immediate location is available virtually anywhere from a mobile device (Silva & Frith, 2012).

According to Pew Internet Research Project (2014):

• “90% of American adults have a cell phone.”
• “58% have a smartphone.”
• “As of May 2013, 63% of adult cell owners use their phones to go online.”
• “74% of adult smartphone owners ages 18 and older say they use their phone to get directions or other information based on their current location.”
• “Among adult social media users ages 18 and older, 30% say that at least one of their accounts is currently set up to include their location in their posts.”
• “12% of adult smartphone owners say they use a geosocial service to ‘check in’ to certain locations or share their location with friends, down from 18% in early 2012.” 

These statistics demonstrate the widespread use of location-informed mobile technology in America. The number of smartphone apps available is growing exponentially and people are downloading them blindly (Greenberg, 2013). Many of these apps integrate geolocation services, collect personal information, and communicate with the public via social media sites and advertisers. These apps are created by companies that may intentionally collect data from users’ phones, but others are created by small businesses or individual novice developers who haven’t put much thought into how the apps integrate data. Unfortunately, both approaches jeopardize users’ privacy. Laws are beginning to require apps to be more transparent about privacy policies, yet policies are difficult to read and understand.

Smartphones allow for a two-way exchange of information between users and the network. Weltevrede et al. (2014) describe a rhythm and pace that is created as information is posted via a variety of sites, applications, and devices. They refer to the real-time dynamic temporal space this creates as “realtimeness.” Realtimeness encompasses real-time streams of information as well as socio-technical and cultural practices. Smartphones may supply embedded information regarding people’s activities, preferences, and actions, but users are also openly posting personal information, and motivations for this are an important part of the issue.

“Self presentation on social network sites happens in two ways: through the construction of profiles, and through interactions with other social network site users” (Buck, 2012). Because identity construction and perception is important in fulfilling social needs, people willingly post profiles with detailed personal information. Additionally, regularly posted photos, check-ins, and general posts contain metadata embedded by smartphones revealing more information that is aggregated to create profiles of activity patterns and real-time location information. Porter (2009) asks us to consider “What are the motivations for distributing information online?” Implicit motivations such as building positive identity online through affiliation and by showcasing “technology skills, creativity, and communication skills” via “platforms for self-presentation” (Greenhow & Robelia, 2009) fuel social media engagement. Additionally, “creative performances” online result in social value (Greenhow & Robelia, 2009). For avid social media users, participation becomes game-like (Barreneche, 2012). The more creative and social performances detailed, technological skills showcased, photos and check-ins posted, the more they accrue in social value and identity among other users. This supports basic human needs to be socially accepted, and social media companies exist to fulfill these needs in exchange for personal data that provides the commodity sold to fund the entire operation.